Source: William Stearns Davis, Readings In Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts From The Sources (New York: Allyn and Bacon, 1913).
Transcribed by Justin Cleary.
Editorial matter from the Davis edition.
1. Appuleius, “The God of Socrates.” Works of Appuleius, chap. XX, Bohn Translation
[The second century A.D.
was marked by a very waning faith in the old gods among the educated classes,
but it was not free from a recrudescence of curious theories as to the
nature of the soul, nor from downright superstition. The writings
of Appuleius, a very typical author, are sufficient evidence of this.
It should be noticed that a pagan “demon,” was by no means always a noxious
creature like the later Christian “demon.”]
According to a certain
signification the human soul, even when it is still situate in the body,
is called a “Demon.” . . . If then this is the case, a longing of the soul
that is of a good tendency is a good demon. Hence some think, that
the blessed are called Eudaimones, the demon of whom is good, that is,
whose mind is perfect in virtue. You may call this demon in our [Latin]
language, according to my mode of interpretation by the name of “Genius,”
because this God, who is in the mind of every one, though immortal, is
nevertheless after a certain manner generate with man so that those prayers
which we implore the Genius, and which we employ when we embrace the knees
(genua) of those whom we supplicate, seem to me to testify to this connection
and union, since they comprehend in two words the body and the mind, through
the communion and conjunction of which we exist.
There is also another
species of demons, according to a second signification, and that is the
human soul after it has performed its duties in the present life, and quitted
the body. I find that this is called in the ancient Latin language
by the name of “Lemur.” Now, of these Lemures, the one who, undertaking
the guardianship of his posterity, dwells in a house with propitious and
tranquil influence, is called the “familiar” Lar. But those who,
having no fixed habitation of their own, are punished with vague wandering,
as with a kind of exile, on account of the evil deeds of their life, are
usually called “Larvæ,” thus becoming a vain terror to the good,
but a source of punishment to the bad.
But when it is uncertain
what is the allotted condition of any of these, and whether it is Lar or
Larvæ, it is called a God Manes, the name of God being added for
the sake of honor. For only those are called Gods, who being in the
number of the Lemures, and having regulated the course of their life justly
and prudently, have later been celebrated by men as divinities, and are
generally worshipped with temples and religious rites. Such are,
for example, Amphiaraus in Bśtia, Mopsus in Africa, Osiris in Egypt, and
others in other nations, but especially Esculapius (Asclepius) everywhere.
All this distribution, however, has been made of those demons who once
existed in a human body.
But there is another
species of demons, more exalted and august, not fewer in number, but far
superior in dignity who [in no wise attached to the body . . .] preside
over certain powers. In the number of these are Sleep and Love, which
possess powers of a different nature; Love, of exciting to wakefulness;
Sleep, of lulling to rest.
From this more elevated
order of demons Plato is of the opinion that a peculiar demon is allotted
to every man, to be a witness and a guardian of his conduct in life, who,
without being visible to any one, is always present, and is an overseer
not only of his actions, but even of his thoughts. But when life
is finished the soul has to return to its judges; then the demon who has
presided over it immediately seizes and leads it as his charge to judgment,
and is there present with it, while it pleads its cause; and censures if
it is guilty of any untruthfulness; corroborates what it says, if it asserts
what is true, and conformably to its testimony, sentence is passed.
[This demon] is entirely
our guardian, our individual keeper, our watcher at home, our special regulator,
a searcher into our inmost fibers, a reprover of our evil deeds, an approver
of our good ones. He is our forewarner in uncertainty, our monitor
in matters of doubt, our defender in danger, and our assistant in need.
He is able also by dreams and by tokens, and perhaps even openly, when
necessity demands it, to avert from you evil, to increase your blessings,
to lighten your darkness, to regulate your prosperity, and modify your
adversity.
2. A Famous Religious Impostor of the Second Century
Lucian: abridged in Friedlaender, “Roman Life and Manners.”
Alexander [105-175 A.D.]
was as a boy remarkable for his beauty. He was early instructed in
magic arts, and wandered about the country, but at last resolved to found
an oracle in his native town of Aboniteichos on account of the crass superstition
of the people. Tablets of bronze were buried by him and conveniently
dug up, announcing that Apollo and his son Asclepius were coming to Aboniteichos.
The inhabitants in delight began building a temple to Asclepius.
Presently Alexander entered the town; magnificently clad in a white and
purple tunic and carrying a sickle in his hand, after the manner of the
hero Peruses, whose son he claimed to be. The god Asclepius is said
to have revealed himself in the form of a snake. Prompted by Alexander
the townsmen soon found an empty goose egg, with a little snake within
it, near the spot where they had begun the new temple. Soon afterward
he exhibited a large tame snake—long in readiness—and the rapid growth
of the divine snake seemed a matter of course.
Appearing with the
snake round his neck in a dimly lighted room, he thrust out from his robe
a snake’s head made of painted linen, somewhat resembling a human face,
the mouth of which could be opened and shut by a horsehair attachment inside.
Sometimes this snake uttered oracles; more often questions propounded at
the shrine were handed back with written answers. Vast crowds came
to consult the oracle. The fee was small but the multitude so vast
that Alexander’s profits were great. Many prominent people, Roman
governors and the like, were among the inquirers. The time was one
of famine, earthquake, pestilence, and the like, and the oracle affected
to give sure directions for avoiding calamity. An occasional error
of false prophecy did not injure its prestige.
Alexander died at
the age of seventy, full of honor, wealth, and influence. Even after
his death it was believed that his statue in the market place of Parium
in Mysia delivered oracles.
3. A Skeptic’s Mockery of the Multiplicity of Pagan Gods
Lucian, “The Convention of the Gods.” Adapted from the Bohn Translation
[The gods are in solemn
assembly, discussing the right of new candidates—especially from barbarous
countries—to their company. Olympus is at length getting overpopulated.
Momus—god of mockery—speaks to the following effect.]
Now Attis, and Korybus and
Sabazius—from what part of the world have they been rolled in upon us,
one after another? Or that Mithras the Median, with his Oriental
mantle and tiara, who doesn’t speak a work of Greek, so that even if one
drink his health he doesn’t understand. … And you with the dog face [Anubis]
the Egyptian, wrapped all up in linen, who are you, fine sir, or how do
you put in a claim to be divine with your barking? And what is the
meaning of this bull [Apis] from Memphis, that spotted individual, being
worshiped and delivering oracles, and having prophets? I blush to
speak of the ibises and apes and goats [which have. . .] stuffed Heaven
from Egypt. . . [Other evils nearer to home in Greece are cited and] if
you desire to end these evils, Zeus, I will read off a certain resolution,
composed just now by me.
Zeus [president of
the assembly]. Read—for all your charges are not without some reason.
[The decree is read.
It is couched in the regular style of an Athenian decree and is to the
following effect.]
In the name of God:
In a lawfully convoked
popular assembly, on the seventh day of the first decade of the month,
under the presidency of Zeus, and the vice presidency of Poseidon, Apollo
in the chair, Momus, the son of Nex , acting as registrar, and Hypnus brought
forward the following motion. – Seeing that many unauthorized strangers,
both Greeks and barbarians, have forced their way into the company of the
gods, that the supply of ambrosia and nectar has begun to fail, that the
great demand for them has sent the price up to a mina per jar, that strange
gods shamelessly push themselves forward and turn to old gods out of their
places: be it decreed that a commission of seven first class gods be appointed
to sift all claims of each of their colleagues, etc.
Zeus. Very just
Momus. All in favor hold up their hands! Or rather let it be
declared carried at once; for I know the majority are against it.
The Assembly is dismissed. But be ready each of you with clear proofs
of your titles, -- the certificates of your father’s and mother’s
names, whence and how he or she became a divinity, his tribe, and fellow
demesmen. All without these cannot be considered by the Commission.